105
IJEMST (International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology)
It is worth inquiring why these teacher and school variables and worksheet usage are correlated and how they
together influence students’ science achievement.
Thirdly, the mechanisms that make worksheets more effective for students in classes lacking readiness than
those in classes not lacking readiness are worth looking at further. It would be easier to find out the mechanisms
through the use of data from countries of type 3 (Australia, Finland, Morocco, Norway, Qatar, and the United
Arab Emirates), which have positive interactions between WB and LR in Model 4 (Table 2). Data from Italy
and Malta could also be used as contrast. To find the mechanisms, more data about worksheet design and about
teaching and learning with worksheets should be collected. For example, strategies that students use to complete
worksheets are important factors related to their achievement but are not well documented.
The last direction of further inquiry is identifying the factors that result in no interaction between worksheet
usage and reading achievement in science achievement. The result of no interaction between WB and RA may
be caused by appropriate matching of language levels of worksheets with students’ reading abilities, but it might
also be caused by teachers’ explanations before students starting to work on worksheets. The data collected by
TIMSS and PIRLS 2011 cannot help us to identify the cause. To resolve this problem, data about evaluation on
language demand of worksheets and the teaching methods accompanying worksheets need to be collected.
Acknowledgements or Notes
The author wish to thank the project (NSC 101-2511-S-003-021) funded by National Science Council of
Taiwan.
References
Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E. H., Scott, J. A., & Wilkinson, I. A. G. (1985). Becoming a nation of readers: The
report of the Commission on Reading. Washington, DC: National Academy of Education, National Institute
of Education, Center for the Study of Reading.
Calderhead, W. J., Filter, K. J., & Albin, R. W. (2006). An investigation of incremental effects of interspersing
math items on task-related behavior. Journal of Behavioral Education, 15(1), 51–65.
Campbell, C. P. (1999). Instructional materials: Their preparation and evaluation. Journal of European
Industrial Training, 23(2), 55–107.
Department of Education and Science (2007). Inclusion of students with special educational needs: Post
primary guidelines. Dublin: Stationery Office.
Foy, P. (2013). TIMSS and PIRLS 2011 user guide for the fourth grade combined international database.
Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston
College and IEA.
Hayes, D. P., Wolfer, L. T., & Wolfe, M. F. (1996). Schoolbook simplification and its relation to the decline in
SAT-Verbal scores. American Educational Research Journal, 33(2), 489–508.
Hoener, A., Salend, S., & Kay, S. I. (1997). Creating readable handouts, worksheets, overheads, tests, review
materials, study guides, and homework assignments through effective typographic design. Teaching
Exceptional Children, 29(3), 32–35.
Hoffman, D. A., & Gavin, M. B. (1998). Centering decisions in hierarchical linear models: Implications for
research in organizations. Journal of Management, 23, 723–744.
IEA Data Processing and Research Center (2013). IDA analyzer. Amsterdam, Netherlands: IEA. Retrieved from
http://www.iea.nl/eula.html.
Kisiel, J. F. (2003). Teachers, museums and worksheets: A closer look at a learning experience. Journal of
Science Teacher Education, 14(1), 3–21.
Krombab, A., & Harms, U. (2008). Acquiring knowledge about biodiversity in a museum - Are worksheets
effective? Journal of Biological Education, 42(4), 157–163.
Lesley, M., & Labbo, L. D. (2003). A pedagogy of control: Worksheets and the special need child. Language
Arts, 80(6), 444.
Martin, M. O., & Mullis, I. V. S. (Eds.) (2013). TIMSS and PIRLS 2011: Relationships among reading,
mathematics, and science achievement at the fourth grade - Implications for early learning. Chestnut Hill,
MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College and IEA.
Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., Foy, P., & Stanco, G. M. (2012). TIMSS 2011 international results in science.
Chestnut Hill, M.A.: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center.
McDowell, E. T., & Waddling, R. E. L. (1985). Improving the design of laboratory worksheets. Journal of