Vol. 17, No. 3 International Journal of Multicultural Education 2015
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strategies (CSR) (Kim et al., 2006), literature circles (Medina, 2010), reciprocal
teaching (Hansfield & Jiménez, 2009), peer-tutoring, book discussions, learning
together through inquiry and questioning (Hansen-Thomas & Cavagnetto, 2010;
Ivey & Broaddus, 2007; Mahdavi & Tensfeldt, 2013), and peer assisted learning
strategies (PALS) (Mahdavi & Tensfeldt, 2013). Dialogue that centers on texts,
ideas, and issues provides classroom opportunities for learners to experience
others’ thoughts, which allows for deliberation and critical reflection about their
own and others’ perspectives. In these conversations students extend their
understandings of texts and mentor each other in ways that will improve
comprehension, vocabulary, and critical thinking (Anderson & Corbett, 2008;
Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; Medina, 2010; Roberts, Torgesen, Boardman, &
Scammacca, 2008; Saunders, Goldenberg, & Marcelletti, 2013).
Collaboration
Literacy as a social practice emphasizes that learners construct meaning
through social interactions, which allows them to exchange ideas and learn
alongside of more knowledgeable or experienced others (Vygotsky, 1978). In
sociocultural theory, the interactions with a knowledgeable other are understood
to create a critical learning opportunity known as the zone of proximal
development (ZPD). More experienced partners, who could be adults or peers,
provide scaffolding (Turnbull, Turnbull, Wehmeyer, & Shogren, 2013). Gargiulo
and Metcalf (2013) viewed collaboration in educational settings as a cooperative
relationship between two or more individuals working toward a mutually agreed
upon goal. Research in the field of new literacies adds to this definition in that
there is increasing value being placed on cooperation and collaboration when
students build their understandings and create knowledge online and use
multimedia. These recommendations shift instructional emphasis to highlight
process and participation rather than traditional authorship, products, and
individual ownership (Lankshear & Knobel, 2007).
Collaboration was recommended in 23 of the 30 articles reviewed across
three fields. Evidence-based strategies for teaching reading in all three areas
highlighted grouping structures to promote collaboration. In teaching reading and
writing to students with learning disabilities (LD) and students who are English
language learners (ELLs), large group instruction, small group instruction, and
peer partners are instructional arrangements recommended to maximize learning
potential (Anderson & Corbett, 2008; Apthorp, 2006; Barr, Eslami, & Joshi, 2012;
Calderon, Slavin, & Sanchez, 2011; Coyne et al., 2010; Dorr, 2006; Facella,
Rampino, & Shea, 2005; Gersten et al., 2007; Genesee, Lindholm-Leary,
Saunders, & Christian, 2005; Kim et al., 2006; Mahdavi & Tensfeldt, 2013;
Saunders et al., 2013). These studies explored various forms of grouping
structures that enable teachers to increase instructional time and provide
students opportunities to actively respond. Additional recommendations include
peer mediated learning such as PALS and Class-wide Peer Tutoring (CWPT),