Psychological Evaluations: What Every Principal Should Know

NOVEMBER 2003 11

help support the student’s successful

learning and development. Eliciting

the full support of parents and stu-

dents is not only required by law in

terms of “informed consent,” but

will greatly enhance the effectiveness

of the process.

What Are the Limitations of

Psychological Evaluations?

It is important to recognize what

psychological evaluations do and do

not provide. They can provide esti-

mates of ability and document the

presence or absence of both positive

and negative characteristics.

However, evaluations seldom give

guidance in selecting specific

curriculum or determining appropri-

ate class assignment or grade place-

ment, generally cannot evaluate the

quality of instruction, and rarely

provide insight regarding why certain

characteristics or problems exist,

which usually requires a much

broader set of information than what

is gleaned from a psychological evalu-

ation alone.

Depending on personnel availabil-

ity, some requests for evaluation

might be impossible or inappropriate

for the school system to honor and re-

sources in the community might be

recommended. For example, parents

might seek evaluation to assist with

college admissions or eligibility for vo-

cational training after graduation,

which are not directly relevant to the

provision of a K–12 education.

What Procedures Are Used?

Psychologists use different

assessment procedures, or combina-

tions of procedures, depending upon

the reason for the evaluation. In the

case of special education evaluations,

some procedures are required by law

to determine eligibility or to deter-

mine if a disability is related to a

student’s challenging behavior, such

as using measures of ability and

achievement to identify a learning

or cognitive disability. Generally,

psychologists’ evaluation procedures

fall into the following categories:

Standardized tests: Psychologists

often use standardized tests of vari-

ous abilities to compare an individ-

ual’s performance to an appropriate

peer group. These tests are

developed and “normed” under stan-

dard conditions—using prescribed

instructions, materials, and scoring

to ensure reliable and valid compar-

isons. Scores are generally provided

as a standard score or percentile

rank. Some common examples

include the Wechsler Intelligence

Scale for Children (WISC) and the

Woodcock Johnson Psycho-

Educational Battery.

Rating scales: Rating scales to as-

sess the presence or frequency of cer-

tain behaviors or skills are dependent

on the perceptions of the rater, thus

the psychologist’s report should note

who provided the ratings and

describe his or her relationship to

the student. The rater must be very

familiar with the student to provide

useful information, and using multi-

ple raters helps reduce biased percep-

tions. Ideally the rating scales are

normed to similar student

populations so results indicate if a

student’s skill, behavior, or emotional

status is “typical” or significantly dif-

ferent from peer groups. Examples of

commonly used rating scales include

the Behavior Assessment System for

Children (BASC) or Vineland Adap-

tive Behavior Scales.

Self-report scales: Older students

are often asked to provide ratings of

their own behavior and skills. These

measures are similar (or even identi-

cal) to other rating scales. They are

often used in conjunction with

teacher or parent rating scales and

frequently have been normed. It can

be useful to compare how students

perceive themselves relative to how

others perceive them. The BASC, for

example, includes a self-report scale.

Observations: Psychologists can

gather information about students’

learning and behavior by directly ob-

serving them in familiar, comfortable

settings, such as during class or

social interactions. Observations not

only address what a student is doing,

but how others in the setting inter-

act with him or her. Results might

be reported as percents of intervals

observed (e.g., attending to tasks

sychological evaluations con-

ducted by school-based or com-

munity professionals can be

invaluable tools in understanding and

addressing the learning needs of indi-

vidual students. When conducted,

interpreted, and reported in a manner

that accurately and fairly describes stu-

dent needs, such evaluations can posi-

tively affect a student’s educational

career. Sometimes, however, evalua-

tions are conducted for the wrong rea-

sons, with inappropriate methods, and

with little regard for how the results

will be used by parents and school

personnel. Reports of such evaluations

often end up in a file drawer, having

provided little or no information to

assist school personnel. Even compe-

tent psychological evaluations, if

ignored or misunderstood, can lead to

serious discord between parents and

school personnel and result in inap-

propriate or inadequate supports for

student learning or behavior.

The process of obtaining and inter-

preting psychological evaluations is

usually the responsibility of the school

psychologist and special education

team, but principals are often

involved in discussions regarding

these evaluations and what the results

may mean for a student’s educational

services. An evaluation’s usefulness is

greatly enhanced when administrators

understand the purpose, strengths,

and limitations of the various proce-

dures and hold realistic expectations

for the value of results.

What Is a Psychological

Evaluation?

A psychological evaluation is a set of

assessment procedures administered

by a licensed psychologist or creden-

tialed school psychologist to obtain

information about a student’s learn-

ing, behavior, or mental health. Eval-

uations can be requested by parents,

school personnel, or students who

are of majority age. School psycholo-

gists most often conduct evaluations

as part of the special education

team’s evaluation to determine eligi-

bility for services; however, they

might also conduct evaluations to

help develop instructional or behav-

ior plans for students, to identify sig-

nificant mental health concerns, or

to determine eligibility for gifted

programs or school readiness.

In the context of special education,

evaluations can only be conducted

according to “due process”

procedures—rules regarding notify-

ing parents of minor students of the

need for an evaluation, inviting par-

ents to a planning meeting, and ob-

taining the parent’s consent for the

evaluation. Outside of special educa-

tion, any psychological evaluation

also requires parent consent.

Students who have reached the age

of majority take on these roles and

must be included in planning the

evaluation and give their own

consent.

Staff members who are involved in

planning the evaluation should

remember that parents (and

students) often feel some anxiety sur-

rounding a referral for evaluation.

They may be reluctant to give con-

sent or participate for fear that the

student will be labeled as crazy—or

feel confusion or suspicion about the

process and a possible change in

placement. These issues are likely to

be exacerbated when the family has

cultural or linguistic differences. All

school personnel should emphasize

in a culturally appropriate manner

that psychological evaluations are

one of a number of methods used to

COUNSELING 101

Sometimes student psychological evaluations are

necessary and appropriate—and sometimes they

are not. Here’s help in knowing how and when

to conduct them.

BY ANDREA CANTER

Psychological Evaluations:

What Every Principal

Should Know

Components of Comprehensive Assessment

Not all types of assessments are used or needed to conduct a comprehen-

sive assessment. What is important is that the array of information gathered

includes:

• A review of what is already known about the student relative to the referral

questions (school history, grades, past test performance, attendance, medical

history, disciplinary records, current or past special education records, etc.)

• Relevant new information from multiple sources (e.g., from school, family)

• Relevant new information about areas of concern (e.g., reading skills for

reading problems, cognitive skills to address questions of ability; behavior

observations and ratings for behavior problems, etc.)

• Any specific required procedures (e.g., measures that address criteria for

special education eligibility)

• Verification of language proficiency for students whose first language is not

English

• Information that helps teams determine if culture, language, health, or eco-

nomic factors may affect the results of assessment or the student’s behav-

ior and learning.

Andrea Canter is a school psychologist in the Minneapolis Public Schools. She is a

consultant for special projects for the National Association of School Psychologists

(NASP). This article was written in cooperation with NASP.

10 P RINCIPAL L EADERSHIP

Figure 1

PHOTO BY CORBIS IMAGE

NOVEMBER 2003 13

that the parents also are familiar

with and have already discussed the

report with the psychologist. With

prior preparation, the principal more

likely will be able to ease tension

surrounding the parents’ concerns,

respond to their questions, defuse

disagreement, and offer counsel.

When reviewing the report with

parents, focus on the purpose of the

evaluation, the general interpretation

of the results, and the services or

strategies recommended to support

the student. It is also vital to solicit

the parents’ input. Check to see if

they find the report to be consistent

with their impressions of and con-

cerns about their child; if the recom-

mendations are acceptable; and if the

information generally is useful in

resolving the current situation. It is

usually beneficial to involve the psych-

ologist who conducted the evaluation

in at least part of the confer-ence so

parents can ask questions, seek clarifi-

cation, and seek further consultation.

When parents disagree with the

evaluation, it is important that every-

one involved have the opportunity to

discuss the parents’ objections and

consider the merits of their disagree-

ment. Parents may identify factors

that alter the interpretation of the re-

sults. Sometimes the most appropri-

ate course of action is to allow

parents to document their objections

or conduct an additional evaluation

to resolve concerns. Special education

regulations provide for documenting

dissenting opinions and considering

second opinions.

When Is an Evaluation

Appropriate?

Growing pressure on students from

high-stakes tests and intense compe-

tition to get into college have gener-

ated a corresponding increase in

requests from parents for psychologi-

cal evaluations, most often as a

means toward qualifying for accom-

modations on standards and entrance

tests (e.g., modifications such as

untimed tests or individualized

administration). Because many tests

allow (or must provide) accommoda-

tions for students with disabilities

such as Attention Deficit Hyperactiv-

ity Disorder (ADHD) or learning

disabilities, parents may seek evalua-

tions hoping to document a qualify-

ing condition. Special education rules

generally require teams to respond

when parents or teachers request an

evaluation to determine if a child has

a disability. However, such requests

often are made regarding students for

whom no previous concerns have

been expressed and who are earning

passing grades but who attain lower-

than-expected or -desired test scores.

Although it is legal to refuse a par-

ent request in many situations, it can

be difficult. School personnel can

minimize unnecessary assessments

and help parents and the student by

listening to the parents’ concerns;

discussing the limitations of evalua-

tions; suggesting more constructive

ways to help their child; and, if war-

ranted, recommending agencies that

might conduct such assessments

(usually for a fee) or provide consul-

tation regarding realistic expectations

(see figure 2). Situations where psy-

chological evaluations are not likely

to resolve concerns include:

• Retention and promotion.

Although psychological evaluations

can provide useful information

for designing remedial instruction

and establishing appropriate expec-

tations, they are not designed to

assess the potential effects of reten-

tion or promotion.

• Graduation exit exams. Concerns

about academic failure should be

based on more than low scores on

graduation tests and addressed

through other school services.

• Social service and postsecondary

program eligibility. Parents may

request an evaluation to qualify their

child for social services,

postsecondary programs, or college

admission. Although an evaluation

might provide the desired informa-

tion, few public schools have suffi-

cient funding and staffing to justify

evaluations that do not contribute

to the current school program.

Summary

Psychological evaluations are an

everyday part of a school’s student

support system. When administrators

understand the purpose, strengths,

and limitations of these procedures

and hold realistic expectations for

their value, they are better prepared

to support students, collaborate with

families, and head off contentious or

even litigious confrontations. Evalua-

tions cannot solve every student

problem, but their wise and selective

application can add a positive,

constructive dimension to effective

school management.

12 P RINCIPAL L EADERSHIP

L ITERACY E DUCATION

during 70% of the observed

intervals) or simply as general

summaries of what occurred. The re-

liability of observations depends on

the similarity of the observed session

to “typical” situations; the more of-

ten the student is observed, the more

likely it is for the psychologist to ob-

tain a reliable sample of behavior.

Interviews: Direct interviews with

students enable them to provide in-

formation about their histories, in-

terpersonal relationships, concerns,

and goals. The psychologist typically

will summarize key information ob-

tained through the interview, as well

as relevant information learned by

interviewing others who know the

student well—usually teachers and

parents.

Comprehensive evaluation: Not

all types of assessment procedures

are used or needed to conduct a

comprehensive evaluation. The psy-

chologist selects those procedures

and tools that will help answer the

referral questions. What is

important is that the array of infor-

mation gathered includes a review

of what is already known, new

information about areas of concern

from a variety of sources, and verifi-

cation of life factors (e.g., language

or economics) that may affect the

evaluation or the student’s learning

and behavior.

What Factors Influence Results?

Often the psychologist must take

into account a number of factors

that can influence the reliability or

validity of evaluation results and af-

fect how the evaluation results are

interpreted:

• Similarity of the student to the

norming population of the test

(age, gender, ethnicity, economic

status, type and location of

community, etc.)

• Quality of the test’s norms

(adherence to standards of test

development and standardization)

• Recent norms

• Testing conditions (individual or

group administration; distractions

or interruptions; consistency with

standardized procedures; student’s

motivation, health, and attention

during testing)

• Student’s familiarity or comfort

with the testing procedures

• Student’s disabilities.

How Are Results Translated?

Psychological reports vary to some

degree depending on the

psychologist, procedures used, and

questions asked. However, school ad-

ministrators should expect all reports

of psychological evaluations to pro-

vide clear information and make rec-

ommendations that are relevant to,

and feasible within, the school

system. Reports that are filled with

jargon and unrelated to available

services are of little help to the stu-

dent or staff members.

To be useful, summaries of evalua-

tions do not need to be long and de-

tailed. Generally, detailed analyses of

performance on small samples of be-

havior are misleading, unreliable,

and not easily generalized to the

classroom. Effective evaluation

reports succinctly delineate the

purpose, process, limitations, results,

and recommendations resulting from

the evaluation (see figure 1).

Consulting with Parents

Administrators typically do not com-

municate evaluation results directly

to parents. The school psychologist

and other team members usually

provide a written and verbal report

and should be available to answer

questions and clarify information. In

the course of disciplinary action or

more proactive planning, principals

are likely to discuss a student’s

behavior, mental health, or academic

needs with his or her parents and

should use the evaluation report for

guidance.

It is impossible to remember all

the details of a psychological evalua-

tion, but taking time to review each

report increases the likelihood that

the principal will recall key pieces of

information during a conference. It

also helps to get any necessary clari-

fication from the school psychologist

before the conference and ensure

The Psychologist’s Report

The psychologist’s evaluation report will vary to some degree depending on the

referral issues and procedures used. However, all evaluation reports should in-

clude:

• A statement of the primary purpose of the assessment

• A brief summary of relevant background (significant factors in school or health

history, previous services, and evaluations)

• A list of procedures used in the current evaluation

• A statement noting any limitations of the assessment (such as cautions due to

breach of standardized procedures, limited English proficiency, cultural vari-

ables, etc.)

• A summary of the results of all procedures relative to the referral questions, in-

cluding general statements about performance on standardized tests and sum-

maries of information obtained from other types of assessments

• A discussion of the meaning of these results in the context of any other assess-

ments (such as academic and vocational measures administered by other team

members) as related to the referral questions

• Summary statements providing answers to referral questions

• Recommendations relevant to referral questions (e.g., special services, instruc-

tional modifications, and behavior management strategies).

Determining

Appropriate Requests

To help determine if a psychological

evaluation is appropriate and, if not,

what alternatives may address the

real cause of concern, principals and

other school personnel should con-

sider:

• What or who prompted this request?

• What specific problem is described?

• Is there any history of this problem

and, if so, how has it been

addressed in the past?

• Has there been a previous evalua-

tion?

• What are the parents’ expectations

and goals?

• What are the student’s expectations

and goals?

• How does the student perceive the

situation?

• Do current teachers have similar

concerns?

• Are there any relevant cultural,

health, or attendance issues?

• Is the family involved with any com-

munity agencies?

• Will this evaluation address the

expressed concerns or identify any

relevant conditions or interventions?

Figure 2