Applied Psychology in Everyday Life

Edited by

Bart L. Weathington,

Christopher J. L. Cunningham,

Brian J. O’Leary and Michael D. Biderman

Applied Psychology in Everyday Life,

Edited by Bart L. Weathington, Christopher J. L. Cunningham, Brian J. O’Leary

and Michael D. Biderman

This book first published 2011

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

and Michael D. Biderman and contributors

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or

otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-4438-3188-3, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-3188-8

ABLE OF

ONTENTS

Preface....................................................................................................... vii

Psychology and Health: Aspects of the Mind that Affect Everyday

Health .......................................................................................................... 1

Michael B. Johnson

Psychology and Sports: From Theory to Practice...................................... 21

Mark H. Anshel

Psychology and Child Development: The Impact of Sport Participation

on Child Development............................................................................... 37

Kimberly S. Fasczewski, Emily S. Pica and David F. Ross

Psychology and the Law: The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly

of Eyewitness Testimony and Lineup Identification ................................. 57

Emily S. Pica, David F. Ross and Richard M. Metzger

Psychology and Religion: Explorations in Paradigm, Theory,

and Method................................................................................................ 71

Christopher F. Silver

Psychology and Work: Understanding People in the Workplace............ 109

Paul M. Muchinsky, Brian J. O’Leary and Bart L. Weathington

Psychology and Money: Pay, Motivation, and Financial Decisions........ 125

Bart L. Weathington and Jeanie G. Weathington

Contributors............................................................................................. 141

REFACE

When the word psychology is mentioned, most people automatically

think of mental illness. Words like "shrink" and “psychoanalysis” quickly

come to mind. When asked to name a psychologist, the most common

responses are Freud, Jung, Dr. Phil, or even Frasier. With a few notable

exceptions, the media perpetuates the view that all psychologists are

healthcare professionals concerned with mental health and well-being.

Movies, television, and books present psychologists as specialists who are

called in to deal with deviant or non-normal individuals. The field of

psychology, however, is associated with much more than just the

diagnosis and treatment of clinical psychological problems. While this

remains an important and essential function of psychology, many

psychologists have chosen to focus their time and research on issues and

problems associated with otherwise normal human functioning in all

domains of life.

A basic definition of psychology is the study of mind and behavior of

humans and animals in all environments. Accordingly, you will find

psychologists studying animals, children, adolescents, older adults, groups

and teams, jobs and work, and virtually every other aspect of human life.

Applied psychology practitioners and research psychologists work in

academia, industry, and government roles. You will find psychologists

performing activities as diverse as teaching, consulting to industry, and

testifying before Congress. Psychologists and psychological researchers

have impacted virtually all of us in some manner. From employment

testing to athlete training, to the design of human-machine interfaces,

psychological research underlies many areas of life that impact "normal"

people.

The American Psychological Association (www.apa.org) currently has

divisions recognizing 54 subfields of psychology. While these divisions

are by no means unique and many psychologists belong to multiple

divisions, the number of recognized subfields provides evidence of the

diversity of psychological activity. Psychology is a diverse field that has

much to offer society in terms of both theoretical and practical knowledge.

The study of psychology is not only for those interested in understanding

what makes some people different from others. It is also for those who

wish to understand what makes all of us the same.

Preface viii

This book showcases a variety of applications of non-clinical

psychological knowledge. It is an outgrowth of the River Cities Industrial-

Organizational Psychology Conference held at The University of

Tennessee at Chattanooga in October 2008. The theme from the

2008conference was “Applying Psychology to Everyday Life” and we

believe the following chapters effectively illustrate the wide scope and

impact of applied psychology. We hope you enjoy this material and are

intrigued by the enormous potential for psychology to impact our everyday

lives.

BART L. WEATHINGTON

CHRISTOPHER J. L. CUNNINGHAM

BRIAN J. O’LEARY

MICHAEL D. BIDERMAN

June 2011

Chattanooga, TN

SYCHOLOGY AND

EALTH

SPECTS OF THE

IND THAT

FFECT

VERYDAY

EALTH

ICHAEL

OHNSON

NIVERSITY OF

ENNESSEE AT

HATTANOOGA

Everybody brings his or her own unique perspectives and views to life.

Each person’s perceptions are based on that individual’s interpretations of

two highly interactive factors: the environment (i.e., external to the

person) and that person’s subjective interpretations of the environment.

And it is a person’s perceptions that can impact his or her physical,

mental, and emotional health (e.g., seeing a snake in the backyard can be

anxiety provoking for one person, yet not of concern to another). A

person’s idiosyncratic subjective interpretations of the environment

include unique evaluations of the environment itself, and of that person’s

evaluation of his or her ability to cope with that environment. Moreover,

coping includes beliefs regarding what needs to be done in any given

situation (e.g., dealing with the external environment) and beliefs

addressing the ability one has to handle the emotions associated with an

event (i.e., dealing with one’s internal environment).

The primary goal of this chapter is to provide some insight into the

very complex perceptual system (Taylor, 2003) and its impact of physical

health through a discussion centering on an integrative, simple, systemic,

and inclusive model that involves four psychological constructs or factors.

The model will be discussed factor by factor, and then systemically, all the

while identifying links with health. This is followed by a brief overview of

individual strategies for enhancing psychological and physical health.

Individuals are impacted by their personal experiences and how

prepared they sense they are to effectively manage such experiences. For

example, drug abuse can be the behavior selected by an individual who

wishes to avoid a subjectively perceived hopeless life situation, or enhance

subjectively perceived experiences. In either case, drug abuse is highly

likely to increase the chances of negative physical and/or psychological

outcomes. In many cases, physical and mental health can be enhanced via

Psychology and Health 2

positive interactions with others (e.g., support, empathy) and a better

understanding of one’s internal processes (e.g., the use of coping strategies

and increased self-awareness) in ways that respect the individual’s

lifestyle and culture. I begin this chapter by addressing some of the

challenges people may encounter when attempting to interact positively

with the environment.

Challenges to Healthy Living

Psychological factors influence physical health in many different ways.

For example, many Western cultures rely on a short-term perspective or

focus almost exclusively on objective outcomes. These, as well other

general and specific life stressors (e.g., job loss), can degrade physical

health (Hobfoll, Schwarzer, & Chon, 1998). That is, research supports a

link between stress and many health outcomes such as anxiety disorders,

bipolar disorder, depression, heart disease, the common cold, and impaired

immune response (Gray, 2011). The human body automatically responds

to subjectively perceived threats via its sympathetic nervous system. This

is the portion of the nervous system that readies the body to face a threat

or run away (i.e., fight or flight).

The physiology of the “fight or flight” response includes an increased

heart rate and the release of sugars and fats into the blood stream to

enhance physical activity. This response can be quite beneficial to health,

but only in the short term. At times we all experience situations that

require immediate attention (e.g., your child falls and needs to be taken to

the doctor for stitches) and in such instances activating the “fight or flight”

system is helpful toward achieving a given goal. However, when the

sympathetic nervous system is constantly activated (e.g., stressful job or

poor interpersonal relationship) adverse physical and psychological

consequences can occur, including exhaustion and depression (Selye,

1936, 1976). Therefore, investigating the causes of constant stress in

people’s lives is worthwhile. For example, sources of stress often can be

considered a function of one’s perceptions of an event more than they can

be considered the result of the actual objective event. Better understanding

how this happens can lead to more effective preventative and curative

interventions.

Whenever individuals operate with perceptions, goals, values, and

interests in a systemic manner that are incongruent with positive mental

and emotional health, stress can result. How an individual subjectively

interprets his or her life events, as well as his or her internal mental and

emotional experiences (i.e., how one feels about something, someone, or

Michael B. Johnson 3

some event), are common areas of interest in psychology. Often how one

perceives himself or herself is a source of that person’s strengths and

weaknesses. In order to provide a well structured argument for the linkage

between one’s psychological and physical well-being, the current chapter

presents a model that describes one way of psychologically approaching

the relationship between (a) physical health and (b) thoughts and feelings.

A Model Linking Psychology and Physical Health

The model around which this chapter’s contents are presented was

derived specifically from a model of cultivating mental balance proposed

by Wallace and Shapiro (2006). The model includes four psychological

factors (conation, attention, cognition, and affect) and their systemic

interactions (Figure 1). Imbalances (i.e., too much or too little) in any of

these four, or a dysfunctional relationship among them, can result in stress,

which is directly related to physical health (e.g., Selye, 1936, 1976).

Psychological

Health

Conation

Attention

Cognition

Affect

Physical

Health

The Individual

The Environment

Figure 1. A model that conceptually links psychological health and physical health

via the constructs of conation, attention, cognition, and affect; as well as these

constructs’ systemic interactions with the environment.

Psychology and Health 4

The model presented in Figure 1 illustrates the dynamics that occur

within a person. Additionally, this dynamic interplay likely is involved in

the quality of that individual’s psychological experiences. Furthermore,

these subjective experiences can play a role in an individual’s

psychological and physical health. As such, the benefits of achieving a

balance within each and among the four are elaborated upon next.

Conation

Conation involves volition (e.g., desires and preferences) and intention

(i.e., goal directed behavior). Both volition and intention are essential

aspects of happiness and satisfaction (Rabten, 1992; Rinpoche, 2003).

When one experiences a conative deficit he or she is apathetic, unmotivated,

or feels highly complacent. This experience can result in depression and a

lack of engagement in professional, social, and interpersonal aspects of

life. At the other end of the spectrum from a conative deficit is conative

hyperactivity, which can be thought of as a type of obsessiveness that

often leads to a great deal of unhappiness. Obsession or perfectionism can

lead to long hours of work (e.g., workaholic) or overtraining in sports, for

example, which quite possibly leads to burnout in either domain.

Additionally, selfish and highly egocentric behaviors can result from

conative hyperactivity, which likely harm one’s well-being and the well-

being of others who are integral to that person’s life (e.g., significant other,

colleagues, friends, family). Therefore, when either form of conative

dysfunction exists, an individual’s level of volition and intention impair

his or her well-being, and/or the well-being of others.

Intrapersonal (i.e., within the individual) conative balance, by definition,

occurs when an individual moves toward ambitions that are reality-based

and lead to his/her and others’ happiness (Emmons, 1986). An individual

moves toward conative balance by engaging in reflection, improving his or

her awareness of the relationship between personal goals and the

environment, and developing an understanding of the appropriateness of

his or her current coping strategies relative to specific life challenges. This

awareness raising improves psychological well-being and is the basis for a

number of counseling psychology interventions. Essentially, when a

person can improve his or her understanding of the “why” underlying

behaviors (i.e., self-awareness) while accurately identifying those behaviors

that are under volitional control, then that person likely will experience

improved quality of life.

Individuals from all walks of life can benefit from improving their

ability to identify the personally meaningful reasons for their chosen

Michael B. Johnson 5

behaviors. Once sufficient self-awareness has been reached an individual

can move toward behaviors that lead to or are part of a truly positive life

experience.

An improved understanding of why one engages in certain behaviors

(e.g., self-awareness) has great significance in many domains relevant to

the human experience, including work, sports, religion, and social

relationships. Motivation, which is strongly related to conation, is often

identified as a primary and necessary feature of accomplishment in many

domains (Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002). Additionally, the type of

motivation one emphasizes is important. Research has identified that

focusing solely on outcomes weakens one’s motivation or desire to

participate and engage the environment (Deci, Betley, Kahle, Abrams, &

Porac, 1981; Vallerand, Gauvin, & Halliwell, 1986). However, even when

individuals experience an objective loss (e.g., being fired from work),

having positive interpersonal support (e.g., colleagues and teammates) can

enhance motivation (Tauer & Harackiewicz, 2004). It appears that

focusing on the experience of the process (e.g., interpersonal interactions)

has benefits. Emphasizing a process-orientation while simultaneous

acknowledging the existence of an outcome-orientation, can move an

individual toward positive life experiences, even if a particular individual

has an elevated ego or self-centered focus (Brunel, 2000; Pensgaard &

Roberts, 2002, Roberts, 2001).

It appears that individuals’ subjective desires and unique purposes

underlying their behavior play a role in whether or not their life

experiences are perceived positively or negatively. Recognizing one’s

ambitions in life, identifying any of these that are dysfunctional, and

considering the possibility that changes are needed due to existing

dysfunctional conations, likely will lead an individual toward a happier

and healthier life. Once an individual identifies clear, specific, measurable,

adjustable, realistic, and time-bound goals that link well with his or her

values and interests, that person likely will enhance his or her ability to

attend to salient aspects of life. This leads to a discussion of the next

psychological factor in the model – attention.

Attention

To engage meaningfully in any human experience, attention must be

paid to that experience (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Teasdale et al., 2000). During

an attentional deficit, an individual is unable to focus on the task at hand

or the desired object. Alternatively, when one’s mind is racing too quickly,

or when one is overly engaged in multiple tasks simultaneously, then

Psychology and Health 6

attentional hyperactivity results, which impedes that person’s positive life

experience. Excessive arousal, agitation, or distraction are highly probable

during attentional hyperactivity and can lead to an unenjoyable life

experience (Critchley & Mathias, 2003). Essentially, attentional hyperactivity

involves, by definition, excessive concentration on aspects of life that

likely result in harm, and those aspects of life can include inappropriate

objects, individuals, behaviors, or thought processes (Cohen & Blum,

2002).

The ability to self-regulate one’s thought processes, behavior, and

decision making appropriately is defined as attentional control. Support for

the positive impact of being able to appropriately regulate one’s levels of

attention (i.e., attentional balance) in life is extensive (see Abernethy,

Maxwell, Masters, van der Kamp, & Jackson, 2007 for a review). The

psychological state of flow, which occurs when one experiences a high

level of attention and commitment to an activity at that moment

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), is an example of attentional balance. When in a

flow state a person feels energized, positive, and as though he or she is one

with the task. Additionally, time feels as though it is altered in a way that

allows the individual to merge his or her actions with self-awareness. This

flow state is congruent with attentional balance. It occurs when the

individual immerses himself or herself in an activity solely for the sake of

the activity, and the results can include positive life experiences, happiness,

and elevated levels of performance. Being able to simultaneously relax

and intently attend to a particular task or goal, as occurs during a flow

state, appears to enhance people’s health (e.g., lowering arousal). An

experience consisting of high levels of attention and low levels of arousal

may seem paradoxical, yet research investigating the benefits of these

seemingly congruent intrapersonal experiences has not been definitive and

appears worthy of future study. Nevertheless, it has been shown that one’s

ability to attend to what is occurring in the environment (i.e., attentional

focus), whether internal or external, has a strong relationship with that

person’s perceived happiness and objective performance level (Simons &

Chabis, 1999).

Being aware of to what one is attending (i.e., thinking) is an aspect of

the human experience that is psychological in nature and yet is directly

linked to physical health (e.g., lowered levels of stress; Wang et al., 2005).

Therefore, one’s thoughts (i.e., cognitions) also likely play a salient role in

that individual’s psychological and physical well-being. Building on this

discussion, cognition is discussed next.

Michael B. Johnson 7

Cognition

Cognitions can essentially be considered thoughts. An individual who

experiences cognitive balance is calmly and clearly in the present,

experiencing life moment by moment. That is, during cognitive balance

there is a heightened sense of knowing that comes from within the

individual, rather than the existence of pure thought. An individual in a

state of cognitive balance is able to accept events without misinterpreting

them (e.g., cognitive distortions). Alternatively, a cognitive deficit is

considered highly similar to absent-mindedness, and cognitive hyperactivity

is akin to being unable to discriminate among various real and fantasy

laden experiences. Therefore, one experiences cognitive dysfunction when

he or she is unable to identify some “thing” as congruent with that thing’s

objective reality, resulting in an outcome that is harmful in some way to

either the perceiver or the object of the perception (Rabten, 1992). At its

most basic level, cognitive dysfunction is similar to one misinterpreting a

life experience (e.g., a family conversation, the boss’s off-hand comment)

due to faulty or inaccurate thought processes. One reason that individuals

periodically incorrectly perceive others’ (and possibly their own)

emotions, attitudes, or intentions is that they fail to recognize their own

biases, hopes, fears, and concerns (i.e., projections).

Cognitive imbalances are something with which everyone is familiar.

Thought processes that enhance one’s observational and perceptual skills

can lead to an improved quality of life. Improving one’s understanding of

the personal meaningfulness of life’s experiences (i.e., self-awareness) is

one way to do this. Shifting toward greater self-awareness can be

challenging. There are often barriers to enhanced self-awareness, and these

barriers are usually self-imposed. Many people can easily say to

themselves, “I am really mad at him because of what he said,” however,

few people are aware of the illogical cause and effect relationship within

such a statement. The intrapersonal response of “mad” is not caused by the

statement, but by the listener’s interpretation. That is, addressing

dysfunctional cognitions may not involve changing the content of one’s

thoughts, but changing one’s relationship with those thoughts. The

perceived stress resulting from, “…what he said” comes from within the

listener, not the speaker. The listener has chosen to internally develop “I

am… mad.” The speaker could not make the listener feel this way. This

leads to a discussion of the last component of the model at the heart of this

chapter. This fourth factor, affect, involves how one’s experiences are

recognized, perceived, and processed at a feeling level.

Psychology and Health 8

Affect

Affect can be defined as the aspect of the human experience that is

subjectively identified and processed at a feeling level. Affect can be

thought of as an umbrella term under which all human emotions fall. That

is, affective experiences include subjective levels of arousal and

pleasantness, and discrete emotions can each be plotted within a matrix

defined by the two continua of arousal and pleasantness (Figure 2).

Affective balance implies a lack of excessive emotional fluctuations

(affective hyperactivity) and a lack of emotional apathy (affective deficit;

Wallace, 2005). Essentially, affective dysfunction is marked by emotional

expression that is inappropriate for the situation (i.e., either too much or

for too long) resulting in a negative impact on one’s life experiences

(Goleman, 1997, 2003). For example, research has identified that one’s

affective states influence his or her performance in ways unique to each

individual (Johnson, Edmonds, Tenenbaum, & Kamata, 2007) and training

individuals to self-regulate their affective intensity can impact performance

(Edmonds, Tenenbaum, Mann, Johnson, & Kamata, 2008). Moreover,

these latter two studies illuminate the systemic nature of the human

experience, which is addressed later in this chapter.

Arousal

Pleasantness

Sad

Happy

Contentment

Angry

low

high

low high

Figure 2. A model illustrating the two continua that comprise affect, with four

examples of discrete emotions inserted within the model.

Michael B. Johnson 9

Individuals experiencing affective dysfunction can benefit from a

deeper relationship with their empathic selves (Shapiro, Schwartz, &

Bonner, 1998). A heightened level of gratefulness is one characteristic of

an empathic individual (Emmons & McCullough, 2003). Additionally,

research supports the argument that an individual can positively impact his

or her well-being when he or she is able to experience delight in one’s own

intrinsic worth and successes, as well as others’, regardless of the

individual’s self-interests (e.g., enjoying a colleague’s promotion party at

work when you were up for the same position) (Salzberg, 2002; Wallace,

2004). Developing concepts such as empathy and equanimity can improve

an individual’s psychological and physical well-being. This chapter now

moves to a discussion of the systemic aspect of the model.

An Integration of Conation, Attention, Cognition, and Affect

Human beings’ experiences and perceptions via their conative, attentive,

cognitive, and affective selves have been briefly outlined. It is important to

have an understanding of the systemic relationship among these factors

prior to being able to develop a holistic view of the human experience as it

relates to psychological and physical health.

As an example of the systemic complexities involved in the human

experience I share an excerpt from an actual interaction that occurred

within a counseling session. A client of mine once expressed a great deal

of frustration due to remembering important issues and topics three to four

days after his weekly counseling sessions. When I pointed out that this

also was a case of thinking of issues and topics three or four days

preceding his next weekly session he expressed surprise. He had not

considered this way of thinking. His conative intensity was functional

while his attention and cognitions were not, leading to affective states that

disrupted his ability to maintain a positive life experience. He was

frustrated and unhappy. Subsequent work with this client focused on

continuing to improve his self-awareness, and then on strategies he could

implement that would move him toward more balanced attentional and

cognitive styles. Sometimes a person’s quality of life (e.g., his or her

happiness) can be impaired by his or her dysfunctional thought processes

and attentional foci.

Happiness, in a truly holistic sense, is not simply a universal state of

pleasure derived from external sources (e.g., money, social accolades), or

getting what you think you want. One’s level of happiness is related to the

emotional quality of one’s perceptions. Studies have identified that money,

for example, can buy happiness, but only up to a point. Kahneman and

Psychology and Health 10

Deaton (2010) provide an analysis of data from 450,000 Americans in

2008 and 2009 and concluded that beyond an income of $75,000 per year,

individuals are not happier. In fact, it is possible that the added stress of

keeping “all your stuff” safe may negatively impact happiness and

physical health. Additionally, those who are poor experience higher levels

of stress and sadness, with lower levels of happiness. However, these low

levels of happiness rise with increasing income, but this relationship

experiences diminishing returns, especially when an individual surpasses

an annual income of approximately $75,000.

This income plateau as it relates to levels of intrapersonal happiness is

possibly due to the differences in perspective between those who make

over $100,000 per year and those who bring in, say, $50,000 a year. High

income earners may be less able to appreciate the “small things” in life

(Quoidbach, Dunn, Petrides, & Mikolajczak, 2010) than those who

struggle to make ends meet. It is important to point out a few facts

regarding these studies as well, and these additional points highlight the

complex system involved in the relationship between psychological and

physical health. First, there is a difference between happiness and life

evaluation (i.e., the thoughts people have about their lives) (Kahneman &

Deaton, 2010). Life evaluation primarily involves one’s thoughts about the

overall quality of one’s life, which differs from one’s perceived general

happiness. Life evaluations include personal evaluations of the overall

goodness of one’s life (e.g., the quality of one’s house, children’s schools,

car, clothes, or social position in the community). Evaluations of

happiness, on the other hand, are linked specifically with physical health,

and include people’s responses to how frequently they feel joy, sadness,

anger, and other emotional experiences.

Other studies addressing the relationship between happiness and

income level have shown similar results. North and colleagues (2008)

identified that family income has a weak correlation with happiness, but

that family social support has a much stronger impact. Interestingly, North

et al. discovered that at lower levels of income, family social support has a

stronger relationship with happiness than at high levels of family income.

That is, family social support is not as strong a predictor of happiness in

rich families as it is in poor families. Additionally, Diener, Ng, Harter, and

Arora (2010) exposed income as a fairly robust predictor of life satisfaction

(i.e., satisfaction with one’s standard of living), but a relatively weak

predictor of subjective happiness. And it is these latter psychological

factors that are related strongly with stress, and stress levels are directly

associated with physical health (Selye, 1936, 1976).

Michael B. Johnson 11

Studies addressing the relationship between people’s levels of

subjective happiness and their income (Diener et al., 2010; Kahneman &

Deaton, 2010; North et al., 2008; Quoidbach et al., 2010), as well as

anecdotal reports from counseling sessions, help illustrate the impact that

one’s conations, attention, cognitions, and affect can have on that person’s

quality of life. If any of the four factors is dysfunctional (e.g., desiring a

job that earns $1 million annually), then elevated stress levels may result

(e.g., decreased happiness) due to the time away from family or

extraordinary demands on one’s personal time. Such stress could very well

result in poor physical health (Selye, 1936, 1976). Psychological skills

training designed to assist a person with identifying dysfunctional conations,

attention, cognitions, and affect (i.e., self-awareness training) is a logical

first step toward decreasing one’s stress, thereby improving physical

health. It is an overview of these mental regimens that I present next.

Putting These Concepts into Everyday Life

Having briefly presented research supporting a strong connection

between psychological health and physical health (Selye, 1936, 1976),

then presented a model that includes four psychological factors related to

psychological health, I now provide a few real world psychological skills

based on this chapter’s model. These skills can be applied to everyday life,

and may thereby enhance one’s physical health.

A number of concepts can help link the factors presented thus far and

the real world. Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986, 1989), defined as one’s

beliefs about his or her ability to effectively manage a current challenge, is

the first link discussed. At its most basic level, the concept of self-efficacy

can be summarized by the adage, “Whether you think you can or think you

can’t, you’re right.” An individual’s self-efficacy regarding his or her

intrapersonal processes (i.e., thoughts, feelings, or physiological responses)

can have a noticeable impact on that person’s subjectively perceived

quality of life (Eklund, 1994, 1996). In addition to self-efficacy, an

individual’s ability to establish and recognize a clear self-identity also

correlates with enhanced psychological well-being (Marcia, 1994). As

individuals improve their self-awareness, their self-identity becomes

clearer. Furthermore, both an individual’s self-identity and self-awareness

are influenced by his or her developmental stage. For example, adolescents

experience a different set of challenges when seeking to improve self-

efficacy, self-identity, or self-awareness than do middle age adults, as

these two groups differ in their cognitive development and emotional

development. And lastly, one’s gender, race, ethnicity, and sexual

Psychology and Health 12

orientation also will factor into how one interacts with the environment.

So, essentially, there is no one “right” way to approach positive

psychological health, and thus no single approach to positive physical

health. The following skills can be generalized to most people, and these

involve self-efficacy, self-identity, and self-awareness, all of which are

based on conation, attention, cognition, or affect.

Psychological Skills

Skills designed to advance an individual’s ability to embrace his or her

intrapersonal experiences (i.e., facilitating an improved understanding of

his or her thoughts, feelings, and actions) can have a large impact on that

individual’s subjectively experienced quality of life. A variety of skills are

discussed briefly here, including goal setting, adaptive perfectionism,

coping with and controlling anxiety levels, attention enhancing, and level

of interpersonal competence. Implementing the aforementioned

psychological skills in a manner that help one improve his or her

psychological quality of life is highly recommended as improved physical

health is likely to result. While discussing each of these skills I specifically

identify how each skill relates with conative, attentional, cognitive, and

affective factors.

Goal setting. An important skill to mention first is goal setting, which

includes any activity that helps focus attention; increases effort, intensity,

and persistence; and facilitates problem solving (Locke & Latham, 1990).

Lines of evidence supporting a strong causal relationship between goal

setting and quality of life exist in a number of domains (e.g., Brobst &

Ward, 2002; Burton, 1989; Kingston & Hardy, 1997). Moreover, goal

setting does not have to include hours of planning or reams of

documentation. What is critical is that the identified goals be concrete,

flexible, controllable, challenging, and measurable (Burton & Naylor,

2002).

Goals can be either outcome- or process-oriented, and there are very

real therapeutic benefits to maintaining a balance between the two. This is

because a solely or predominately outcome goal orientation may not be

fully controllable (e.g., the goal to “get a raise at work”) and as such may

have a negative impact on that very outcome and the person’s psychological

health. However, outcome goals are often a source of motivation.

Moreover, outcome goals are adjustable and therefore can be altered as

circumstances dictate (e.g., a downturn in the economy may dictate

changing the goal of getting a raise at work).

Michael B. Johnson 13

Although outcome goals can be beneficial at times, process goals are

vital in most every situation. Process goals frequently result in improved

self-awareness and increased attention to factors such as effort and the

“how” of life experiences (e.g., the goal of discovering “how I can do my

job better”). Focusing on process goals allows one to engage in the event

itself, the benefits of which are addressed by the concept of flow (Jackson

& Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). To retain focus “in the moment,” (i.e., a

process orientation) one needs to be comfortable with self-evaluation. For

example, analyzing one’s level of outcome and process foci may lead to

reframing if outcomes are receiving a dysfunctional amount of the

individual’s attention.

Effectively achieving one’s goals, whether they are process, outcome,

intrapersonal, interpersonal, or group as a whole, is a matter of an

individual’s perceptions. It is these perceptions that can be problematic or

helpful and, therefore, should be the focus of goal setting. If an

individual’s goals appear to be problematic, the cause may be related to

expectations, which can be held by the individual or others (e.g., family,

friends, the press). Identifying the nature of one’s distress and then

working through that experience is a process fundamental to successful

goal setting.

Adaptive perfectionism. The understanding of one’s self and one’s

relationship with environmental experiences plays a vital role in quality of

life. Possessing an ability to accept that some factors are under one’s

control, while others are not (i.e., adaptive perfectionism), is part of

adaptive perfectionism. Listening to one’s self-talk can shed light on one’s

level of adaptive perfectionism. Emphasizing accurate and positive self-

talk is a cognitive skill that can be beneficial. That is, when a person is

able to identify an inner dialogue, and then accurately and objectively

clarify what he or she feels is controllable and that which is not, could

prove invaluable for individuals who wish to improve their quality of life.

Being able to improve upon one’s ability to focus, plan, problem solve,

and think about situations and the self in positive and accurate terms is

important.

Affective coping strategies. Experiencing dysfunctional levels of

affect is a challenge that can be addressed effectively in a number of ways.

For example, affective hyperactivity (e.g., being excessively emotional)

likely would entail learning a relaxation strategy, of which there are many.

An individual who is able to identify accurately his or her challenge as

being overly emotional (e.g. excessive ruminations leading to elevated

anxiety) will benefit from a mental relaxation technique more than he or

she will from a technique that addresses somatic symptoms. Cognitive

Psychology and Health 14

coping strategies include (a) developing a routine, (b) implementing a

cognitive restructuring plan (i.e., changing how one thinks about a

situation), or (c) employing positive thought control (i.e., when a negative

or self-defeating thought occurs, stop it and replace it with a positive

thought). On the other hand if one identifies that his or her stress is

primarily bodily (i.e., somatic), then physical relaxation strategies (e.g.,

progressive muscle relaxation, breathing control exercises) are indicated

(Maynard & Cotton, 1993; Maynard, Hemmings, & Warwick-Evans,

1995; Maynard, MacDonald, & Warwick-Evans, 1997).

Overall, there is support in the literature for the effectiveness of active

problem-focused coping strategies (e.g., cognitive reappraisal, positive

self-talk, the use of breathing exercises, and implementing a pre-event

routine) in both the short and long term, rather than avoidance techniques

(e.g., disengaging). This latter approach is not encouraged. Disengaging

may have short term benefits but will have long term disadvantages

relative to achieving satisfaction, experiencing enjoyment, and continued

engagement in life’s activities (Kim & Duda, 2003).

Attention-enhancing skills. Appropriately selecting and sustaining

attention has been shown to be vital to engagement in and quality of life

(Kitsantas & Zimmerman, 2002; Orlick & Partington, 1988). Some

aspects of life require high levels of attention, while others require none at

all (i.e., automatic tasks). That is, less attention should be paid to the more

basic motor skills. This allows greater focus toward other, more

situationally important factors. Appropriately selecting those aspects of

life on which one focuses is paramount to an individual’s quality of life.

Interpersonal competence. In addition to intrapersonal factors (i.e.,

those within the individual), focusing on enhancing interpersonal

competence can positively impact quality of life (e.g., a social support

system; Holt & Dunn, 2004). Among the various interpersonal

relationships one can experience, perhaps the most significant in people’s

lives is the family and/or one’s relationship with a significant other. Some

of the most stressful life experiences involve events such as marriage,

divorce, or the death of a family member (Holmes & Rahe, 1967). This is

so because, in most cases, life involves at least two people’s mutually and

causally interdependent thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (i.e., a dyadic

relationship), and frequently each of these can involve adjustment on the

part of those involved in the relationship. Change is difficult and often

stressful. However, the quality of an interpersonal relationship tends to

depend upon the emotional tone of the relationship (e.g., fondness, trust,

and respect); the congruence of the relevant individuals’ goals, values, and

hopes; and the level of cooperation amongst those in the relationship.

Michael B. Johnson 15

Interpersonal hurdles that often present themselves include distrust,

conflicting goals, and power struggles. Actively and accurately addressing

these hurdles increases the chance of a quality interpersonal experience.

Psychological Skills Conclusion. The skills briefly reviewed herein

are not exhaustive. The number of possible skills is large. For the most

part, we are limited solely by our creativity. Any skill that leads a person

to increased levels of optimism, confidence, and hope is recommended.

Conclusion

This chapter began by stressing the importance of perceptions and their

relationship with one’s quality of life. Although objective reality matters,

it is the quality of one’s perceptions of that objective reality that is unique

to that person. And these perceptions are identifiable via our conations,

attention, cognition, and affect. Moreover, these four factors are at least

minimally controllable. By actively addressing conations, attentional

focus, cognitions, and level of affective intensity, people play a role in

improving their psychological health, thereby reducing negative life

experiences (e.g., stress levels) and subsequently positively impacting

physical health and overall quality of life.

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SYCHOLOGY AND

PORTS

ROM

HEORY TO

RACTICE

ARK

NSHEL

IDDLE

ENNESSEE

TATE

NIVERSITY

How often do you observe athletes fail to perform at a desirable level

under pressure, not deal with frustration very well, admit to feeling

nervous before or during a contest, fail to cope with stress very well, or

beat an opponent who was heavily favored? What about coaches whose

leadership style consists primarily of yelling or threatening his or her

athletes, or having the athletes perform exercises as punishment for

something they did or did not do? These are just a few examples of

situations in sport that are influenced by an athlete’s thoughts or emotions,

that is, “the mental game.”

Successful athletes differ psychologically from their less successful

counterparts in their mastery and proper application of an array of mental

skills that allow them to anticipate success, concentrate on the task at

hand, transfer skills and strategies from practice into competition, and

overcome adversity, which is inherent in competitive sport. Sport

psychology deals with the psychological factors that influence physical

performance – including sport, exercise, work, rehabilitation, and the arts

(e.g., dance, acting, performing music).

The field of sport psychology means different things to different

people, depending on one’s background and interests. Sport psychology

can be an area of clinical practice, for instance, treating athletes for an

anxiety disorder, as an educator (e.g., teaching a course or seminar), as a

team consultant (e.g., mental skills coach), as a researcher (e.g., a

university professor who enjoys the study of psychology in a sport

context), or the use of sport psychology concepts and techniques in

applied settings by athletes, coaches, and athletic trainers. Sport

psychology has evolved into a reputable area of science and practice, not

unlike the larger field of general psychology. Sport psychologists are

focused on understanding the factors that help explain reaching and

consistently maintaining optimal performance, not only in sport, but in

Psychology and Sports 22

other physical performance settings. Let’s review some components of the

field.

In a field (applied) setting, sport psychology is often referred to as “the

mental game,” and practitioners are often called mental skills coaches. The

applied nature of sport psychology concerns the use of mental skills –

examples of such skills include psyching up, attentional focusing, cueing,

or visualization - or understanding the psychological factors that influence

sport performance. Practitioners apply this information to improve the

competitor’s thoughts and emotions, leading to better performance

outcomes. Top athletes bring to every competition a full arsenal of mental

skills and strategies they know will make a difference between winning

and losing, between success and failure, and sometimes those outcomes

are a matter of a single incident. Look at the pre-performance rituals of

golfers, baseball batters and pitchers, and basketball free throw shooters

before executing the skill.

Sport psychology principles and concepts originated with the field of

psychology. Psychology concepts such as arousal, intrinsic/extrinsic

motivation, team member interaction (also called group dynamics),

leadership skills and styles (coaching psychology), communication skills,

aggression, causal attributions (i.e., the motivational value of explaining

the causes of outcomes), and clinical issues (e.g., sleeplessness, anxiety,

drug or alcohol addiction, burnout, low compliance with injury

rehabilitation) are just a few examples of areas commonly studied in

psychology that have been studied and applied by sport psychology

researchers and practitioners.

Finally, sport psychology educators, consultants, and researchers often

attempt to explain, describe or predict behavior. An example of explaining

behavior includes observing an athlete’s inability to perform up to

expectations or in accordance with previous performance level under high

pressure conditions. This is referred to as “choking” and there are specific

strategies that athletes can use to prevent or overcome the choke.

Describing behavior may involve focusing on the pre-performance

routines athletes often display prior to executing a skill, let’s say warm up

or mental practice, or some other series of thoughts or actions that prepare

the athlete for the task at hand (e.g., baseball hitters who first unwrap, then

rewrap their batting gloves between pitches). Predicting behavior is

defined as the degree of accuracy with which a researcher, practitioner, or

coach can accurately anticipate a particular performance outcome given

the presence and, sometimes, interaction, of one or more factors. For

example, it can be accurately predicted that if a coach teaches a skill or

strategy in an angry manner, the athlete will not retain the coach’s